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27 November 2012

How We Listen




"Even the most artful of writers will give himself (and his morality) away in about every third line." ~ Joseph Conrad

 


The topic of music is expansive. It involves each arena of study--mathematics, science, art, literature, history, anthropology, etc. It is a growing organism telling the story of the ages. So to pin down both the notion of music and to become better listeners of music, we can examine how we intake music.

According to Aaron Copland in What To Listen For In Music, we can start by asking ourselves as music lovers:
1. Are we really hearing everything that is going on? (Think the notes themselves).
2. Are we really being sensitive to it? (Concerns your response to the music).

We listen to music on three planes:
1. Sensuous Plane:
     * The simplest way to listen
     * The sheer pleasure of musical sound
     * A powerful sort of escape that controls the very atmosphere of a room
     * Often a plane abused by many who consider themselves "qualified music lovers"
~ "Yes, the sound appeal of music is a potent and primitive force, but you must not allow it to usurp a disproportionate share of your interest. The sensuous plane is an important one in music, a very important one, but it does not constitute the whole story" (8).

2. Expressive Plane:
     * Asks the question, "Is there a meaning to music?"
     * Can be controversial topic.
            a.) Some artists believe the expressive meaning to music only goes as deep as its own musical existence and no more. Stravinsky, for example, saw music as an object "with a life of its own" (9). Stravinsky's view may be taken into consideration when you see how often certain views are read into certain pieces without proper context. Often the views of an artist are mismanaged by the hearer. The misinterpretation has the capacity to pull away from the overall notion of musical life within any given piece.
             b.) Others believe that music must have a deeper expressive value that roots itself both within the audience and the composer. The point above is valid, "But that should not lead one to the other extreme of denying to music the right to be 'expressive.'" He continues by saying that, yes, music does have meaning. However, "'Can you state in so many words what the meanings is?' My answer to that would be, 'No.' Therein lies the difficulty."
~  "The musician, in his exasperation, says it means nothing but the notes themselves, whereas the nonprofessional is only too anxious to hang on to any explanation that gives him the illusion of getting closer to the music's meaning" (12).

3. Purely Musical Plane:
     * Value derived from the notes themselves and their manipulations.
     * Often musicians are too conscious of this plane, denying the purpose and power of the Sensuous and Expressive planes. As exemplified in Stravinsky's view mentioned above.
     * Musical Elements:
               1. Rhythm is the how.
               2. Melody is the what.
               3. Harmony is the why and relationships.
               4. Tone Color is the who and story-telling.
 (We will continue to expand on this plane throughout the rest of the year).
~ "The intelligent listener must be prepared to increase his awareness of the musical material and what happens to it. He must hear the melodies, the rhythms, the harmonies, the tone colors in a more conscious fashion. But above all he must, in order to follow the line of the composer's thought, know something of the principles of musical form. Listening to all of these elements is listening on the sheerly musical plane" (13).


At this intersection, we owe this topic a little more discussion. Copland refers to a woman who came to him with the unfortunate reality that she found her appreciation of music lacking because she was often unable to connect it with anything definite. She was suggesting that because she couldn't listen to a piece and close her eyes to imagine real material objects or events, she must not be fully appreciating the music. To which Copland simply explains, "That is getting the whole thing backwards, of course" (10). Music cannot always be assessed for physical, tangible value. When I listen to Afternoon of a Faun, I can easily imagine a dewy meadow in which a faun is frolicking about nibbling grass. Prelude to the Afternoon of a Fawn 
It is a beautifully expressive flute introduction. When I combine the tone color and expression of that very telling flute with what the composer has provided in his context, a clear story unfolds. However, not only can this piece be evaluated for historical context and musical quality, the expression of this piece offers more than any exact image. That is one of the beautiful truths of music. The intention of any artist to tell a story musically is then compounded by the hearer's intention to grow from listening.

When you read a book like For Whom the Bell Tolls by Ernest Hemingway, you might only discover the story of a soldier doing his job and finding love. You would gain the gist of the author's intent, but you might be missing the real power of the book by denying the cultural and personal introspection obtainable in having read it. By allowing the expressive value of the piece take full shape, you might discover how you yourself define love and be surprised by how that impacts your own moral code.

Herein lies the power and confusion of music. While it is important to grasp and attain as much as you can of the story that a composer is telling musically, it is then equally important to discover and reflect upon the cultural and personal significance of that story.

Copland is but a step away from my conclusions concerning assessing musical expression. He states, "How close should the intelligent music lover wish to come to pinning a definite meaning to any particular work? No closer than a general concept" (10). And I appreciate and enjoy his explanation:
"Music expresses, at different moments, serenity or exuberance, regret or triumph, fury or delight. [Take note of the extremes Copland puts hand in hand.] It expresses each of these moods, and many others, in a numberless variety of subtle shadings and differences.  It may even express a state of meaning for which there exists no adequate word in any language. In that case, musicians often like to say that it only has a purely musical meaning. What they really mean is that no appropriate word can be found to express the music's meaning and that, even if it could, they do not feel the need of finding it."

While I concur with the notion he is touching on, I do believe that both professional musician and novice alike ought to reach deeper than a general concept of any given piece before letting it rest. The general concept is a great place to start. How do you feel when listening to a piece? What notions are coming to your mind? 

Then you must make the next step of deciphering the patterns within the elements of rhythm, melody, harmony, tone color, structure, etc. What do they convey about a general concept? What story can you put together? After you answer some of those questions, you can begin to ascertain that historical and biographical context is the next important step. How do the musical patterns of the piece fit into history? Does it reveal more about the general concept, or does it bring about specific revelations directly linked to the artist's intent? Who was the artist? Why did they care enough about those musical patterns to utilize them in telling a story? Why would they concern themselves with said expressions in the first place? What clues does that give us about the song's story? 

Then from historical and biographical context, we need to understand the big picture. What does the piece tell us about the culture we live in or the cultures that came before us? Then we ask ourselves, "how should we then live?" What can we understand about ourselves and our own views that either is in need of correction or confirming? How can we apply those lessons to reach the hurting world around us? How can we relate those truths to ourselves and our testimony as it applies to others? 

The range of this analytical approach is broad and wide, however it is not at all "general" as we might consider. Sometimes we confuse those two ideas. The idea of "seeing the big picture" is not an ability to see the general concept or to view things from a bird's eye view. It is the ability to see all the little details and pieces in relation to each other and yourself. 

I believe in theory, Copland would probably agree with that approach. He would probably attest however that in using this approach, no two people might ever completely agree with the meaning of any given song. And therefore perhaps there is no one meaning. And that that is how it ought to be. He would be rightright only inasmuch as our short perception on earth can allot us. However, as a Christian, I believe that there is always an ultimate truth emanating from the Ordained Creator. It is our duty to delve into the meaning as much as possible, discover as much truth as we can handle, debate these meanings to reach a better understanding of our own beliefs and perhaps be proven wrong often, and trust in the truth we will one day come to know, not dimly but clearly (1 Corinthians 13). A joyous and hope-filled task, no doubt.

The danger within much of modern music is that expression is treated in extremes of self-promotion. In which case an artist is creating something that denies an awareness of one's value in time and space. Artists often create pieces that are so self-involved that communication breaks down. And therefore the piece can mean anything to any person, which then leads to the possibility that it may mean nothing at all. This form of expression not only denies the ability to communicate musically, but it also revokes music of its most honorable and beautiful power. It effectively denies God his due glory and diminishes the mysterious grandeur of music.

With that said, even this form of music can still be redeemed, not directly but by applying a discerning eye. To explain, let's take into account a tool utilized by one of literature's most distinguished story-tellers, Charles Dickens. He once said, "One of my most consistent and earnest endeavors has been to exhibit in all of my good people some faint reflections of our Master [...]" (Literature Lectures from Bleymaier 2005). He defined realistic truth by using God as the yardstick. When his characters proved "good," they were mirroring God. Therefore in the inverse application of that tool, when his characters proved "bad," they were reflecting the contradiction to that yardstick. Therefore when we examine a piece of music that was created without any rooted identity or is fundamentally self-interested, we can still use a discerning eye to discover truth. By applying the view Dickens took concerning his characters, we can listen to the most obtuse and uncommunicative pieces to realize truths about creation and thereby the Creator. We actually get an opportunity to sharpen the sword of discernment, cutting through the gristle to reach the meat.

As listeners and lovers of music, we should strengthen our discerning ears and look to delve deeper into any piece we hear to glean real truth. As music creators, we should take these notions deeply to heart. We should find ourselves capable of communicating truth and expressing our identity in Christ by which we are uniquely set apart through circumstance and spiritual growth. The more we know of our identity in Christ--whether strong or weak, growing or withering--the more we can exemplify the need for a Savior, the more we can glorify God, the more we can communicate truth.

Rookmaaker, author and art aficionado, explains a poignant definition of truth that any creator or lover of music should take into account when looking for the expressive value of any piece of music. He states:
"Truth in art does not mean doing accurate copies, but that the artist's insight is rich and full, that he really has a good view of reality, that he does justice to the different elements of the aspect of reality he is representing. Truth has to do with the fullness of reality, its scope and meaning [...] It is artistic truth!" (237)

What a lovely view to hold concerning the expression of truth! As ages pass and the mediums of music grow and contort with technological expansion, truth remains the same. The fullness of reality is told in both the highs and lows of life. Which when we consider the picture of extremes we painted earlier, the utter evil on one hand and the utter good on the other,
                                                                                              Black                             G                         White
                                                                                              Sin                                 R                         Righteousness
                                                                                              Ugly                              A                         Beautiful 
                                                                                              Lost                               C                         Found
                                                                                              Despair                          E                          Hope
we see that both extremes are part of reality. Extremes of depression and joy both depict truths concerning the human condition and our Creator. When an artist lives in one extreme without balance, he denies the fullness of reality and denies truth. We looked last time at Psalm 13 from David. He began with despair and ended recognizing God's faithful love. The two extremes live much closer than we imagine. But not through a moral relativity that denies the reality of extremes, but rather only through grace. No other bridge offers passage between the two worlds.

Now let's put our discernment to action.
Please listen to and discuss here and/or in Music Club:

Gregorian Chant, Monastic Choir of the Abbey of St. Pierre de Solesmes, 1930

Well Tempered Clavichord, Bach

Rite of Spring, Stravinsky (One of Four)

Allegro Barbaro, Béla Bartok

Rhapsody in Blue, Gershwin

And again with these new tools discussed, I Will Follow You Into The Dark, Death Cab For Cutie

13 November 2012

Extremes vs Grace

Psalm 13

To the choirmaster. A Psalm of David.

1 How long, O Lord? Will you forget me forever?
    How long will you hide your face from me?
How long must I take counsel in my soul
    and have sorrow in my heart all the day?
How long shall my enemy be exalted over me?
Consider and answer me, O Lord my God;
    light up my eyes, lest I sleep the sleep of death,
lest my enemy say, “I have prevailed over him,”
    lest my foes rejoice because I am shaken.
But I have trusted in your steadfast love;
    my heart shall rejoice in your salvation.
I will sing to the Lord,
    because he has dealt bountifully with me.



     In this psalm of David, we see a beautiful picture of the extremes of reality. From the start, we see David crying out in anxious pain. He's looking for God, asking Him questions, begging for His presence. And if we stopped there, we would be left with doubt and perhaps resentment from David. But no, David ends this piece saying, "But I have trusted in your steadfast love." He ends with rejoicing and singing and gratitude for the gifts of mercy and grace God has bestowed upon David. Rooted within each of the psalms is the essence and resolve of all music.

    All music finds form and structure in the give and take of a measure, a lyric, or a rhythm. All music lives with these extremes. And the best music lives in the balance of these extremes.

    In Music Club today, we began to consider these extremes and how they play out in the music we listen to every day. So we listed off some possible extremes:

               Dark                                                           Light
               Black                                                          White
                         Sin                                                       Righteousness
                   Ugly                                                        Beautiful
                 Lost                                                            Found
               Despair                                                          Hope


     We could go on with these extremes for some time. In actuality, the idea of opposing forces is an ongoing characteristic throughout existence because that is the nature of life. As Augustine terms it, there is the City of God, and there is the City of Man. Because these extremes are the mantle by which each individual must live, humanity has come to deny this antithesis with the idea of adiaphora or "gray area". Instead of facing these extremes, much of humanity chooses to see the world dimly. So their list of extremes may look more like this:



       DarkLight 
       BlackWhite
         SinRighteousness
        UglyBeautiful
       LostFound
       DespairHope

 


     There is little difference within each antithetical idea. Hate and love are the same beast. With adiaphora hope and despair are the same illusion. However, a biblical portrayal of these realities might look more like this:

                                                                                              Black                             G                         White
                                                                                              Sin                                 R                         Righteousness
                                                                                              Ugly                              A                         Beautiful 
                                                                                              Lost                               C                         Found
                                                                                              Despair                          E                          Hope


      By the grace of God, we can live in these extremes and see the beauty of it all. It's not some gray area that stands between these two worlds and creates a muddy puddle of watered down ideals. Grace is a purifying force that stands as a bridge, allowing the extremes of our fallen world entrance into the City of God.


     Now what does this mean musically? Each psalm, either by pleading for mercy or thanking God for His mercy, is a prayer of praise trusting in God's ability. All music mirrors this pattern by exemplifying extremes and balances. As we study more musical patterns and terms, we will soon conclude that even a song without lyrics (perhaps especially songs without lyrics) expresses the give and take of these extremes. And the best pieces do so while keeping grace at the core.

     In our session today, we attempted to listen to "I Will Follow You Into the Dark" by Death Cab For Cutie to examine the song for its qualities of extremes and to identify some of the themes presented within that piece. However we weren't able to load the right video during class. So here is that video again: I Will Follow You Into the Dark, Death Cab For Cutie

     Listen to this piece. Pull from the specific artistic expression displayed in the music video itself. Comment. Add to the discussion. Or pull ideas for future discussions.

     As our musical grammar grows, we will be able to root through more pieces of music to glean more truths and eventually find ourselves witness to a whole host of marvels regarding God and His creation. Charles Dickens said that the characters he created in his books always reflect God, either by mirroring Him or by denying Him. Keep this idea in mind as we look at different types of music. Music can show us truth either in the way it glorifies God or in the way that it denies God. For now, let's try to see/listen for the more apparent ways antithesis exists in music. Discuss any topic from this song you'd like. Maybe relate it with other pieces, if any come to your mind. You are welcome to examine this for its lyrics (the words), its melody (the tune you can hum along), its rhythm (the pace of the song and its phrasing), or whatever else grabs your attention.

     What truths can we learn from this piece?

05 November 2012

The Generic Music Assessment

Name _______________                                                Date _______________


Part One

Your "go-to" Bible verse:



What is music?








What are your favorite things about music?





Current "go-to" genre:

Current "go-to" artist:

Current "go-to" song:

If you could play any instrument fluently (including vocal), what instrument would you pick?


In musical terms, what do you feel comfortable with? What do you understand?
(i.e. music elements or terms like staff, notes, clefs, time and/or key signature, etc.)









Do you have any background in music? If so, what?










What do you want to gain from Music Club? And what do you expect to gain from studying music?







(Part Two is for those who have had some musical background. If you don't know any of the terms below, do not worry. If you've only had a very little bit of background in music, give it your best shot.)


Part Two


 Define the following:


Key Signature:

Rhythm:

Beat:

Time Signature:

Chromatic:

Diatonic:

Modes:

Tone Color:

Harmony:

Melody:

Sharps/Flats:

Staff:

Octave:

Tonic:

Major:

Aeolian:



List any scales you can, as many as you can:







How do you make a scale?







What is the most natural relationship of chord progressions?






02 November 2012

Setting the Psalms




John Calvin once said, "As for public prayers, there are two kinds: the ones with words alone, the others with singing." Music is inherently a religious expression. If we see religion as any system of beliefs by which you live, then music is an expression of those beliefs and, in turn, a hefty portion of cultural identity.

Each culture tells a remarkable story with music. They may tell us of a history of angst, a history of war, a history of joy and celebration, a history of derision, a history of families that loved one another, or a history of families divided. Each twanging string, each feisty beat, each rasping voice is telling the story of stories. And whether by reflecting God or by denying Him, each story offers us stark truths that carry on into our day to day lives.

For this undeniable power, music should never be taken for granted. It has the power to cross into each realm of study and discussion. It takes the magnificence of the scientific and mathematical worlds and breeds them closely and seamlessly with the worlds of art and history. Within our very pulse, the essence of music is built into our body's frame. This subject of music in the light of its grandeur and express capacity to glorify God in each realm of study is one that I will return to frequently. But in reality, whether discussed directly or indirectly, that idea is the foundation of everything music has to offer.

For today's scope of focus, we will look at a quick overview of the role of the Psalms in music history and otherwise, particularly as it pertains to Occidental cultures. This outline of psalms in Western music is pulled directly from the book The Gift of Music by Jane Stuart Smith and Betty Carlson. They very clearly illustrate the role of the psalms throughout music history. For their purposes, this initial outline is the perfect context for telling the cultural impacts and life stories of those who defined music as we know it.

Before A.D. 200, the history of music, as we can understand it, is dubious at best. Musical notation didn't really come together in a standardized form until later. However Hebrew tradition keenly valued music regardless of the presence of notation. What we do know concerning the music of God's chosen people is that it was mainly vocal, it utilized antiphonal singing (antiphony is the use of call and response in music), and some instrumental accompaniment.

The book of Psalms is foundational to every piece of music we have in Western music. The word "psalm" comes from psalmoi which is Greek for "twanging of harp strings". In Hebrew, the word is tehillium or "songs of praise".

The psalms themselves are mostly written by David. His unique story and the remarkable journey of his life has formed into the inspiration every musician feeds off of, regardless of their opinions on Scripture, the church, or God. The reason for this transcendence throughout the ages cannot be accredited to David or any of the other authors, although each author has a lot to offer. The reality is that once again, God uses His children to tell His story. God uses us, in our weakness and the frailty of our situations, to illustrate His glory and bring us to a peace that surpasses understanding.

David's story is the telling of every story ever told. The one who is smallest and most presumable to fail rises up and defeats the odds.  The glory of this unlikely hero then vanishes as the world surmounts him. Yet still, as the shattered glory resounds in painful echoes of memories and loneliness, the little hero holds on until the light of the dawn. There, victory meets our hero once again, and the unjust reap the consequences of their hate, disloyalty, and pride.

Without going into too much detail, David's story should be well conceived before jumping directly into the use of the psalms in music history. David's story is best understood through the context given by Samuel in I Samuel 16:7, "Man does not see what the LORD sees, for man sees what is visible, but the LORD sees the heart." David was the youngest of his family. He was the least considered in the line of his brothers. As a little shepherd boy, he learned to appreciate the small things and protect them with a fierceness. He hardened his hands defending his flock against the attacks of bears and lions. As the Israelite people came into a time of war with the Philistines, David witnessed his eldest brothers go to war only to be struck by a state of fear, alongside the rest of the nation at mention of one particular mammoth Philistine, Goliath. David could not bear the taunts of this Philistine coming against "the armies of the living God" and decidedly took on the challenge to face this giant. Despite the worry and concern of all the authority figures in David's life, David met Goliath in battle geared in nothing more than his sling, five smooth stones, and his God. Of course, this well-known tale ends with the victory of David and all of Israel. Goliath was slain. And the world came to know David and his God.

Now the real weight of the psalms comes from the time after this period of David's victory. David became a dependable and fierce warrior in battle. The country would sing his praises above that of their own king, King Saul. They sang, "Saul has killed his thousands, but David his tens of thousands." King Saul went from loving David to cursing his existence. David went through one of the most austere yet common of life cycles in which those who loved him and praised his name turned to hate, violence, and destruction. Anyone he may have been able to call friend in the past was no longer a dependable ally. He had no one and nothing. The King wanted him dead. In our time and vantage point in Western culture, our understanding of this reality is limited at best. The concept that a major leader would not only have such childish jealous overcome both the ability to see that David deserved his gratitude and the ability to see the country's great need for David, but also that the leader would have no accountability to keep him from demanding David's death. The notion of having to flee our own country and loved ones because a violent leader wanted us wiped off the face of the earth is one that we can only come close to understanding by observing the stories of countless victims born into a wicked dictatorship. This burden was David's lot, and the facade of love shown unto him after he first saved the nation only served to deepen the great wound of isolation, fear, and injustice.

Eventually, David was given the opportunity to exact revenge on the wicked King. Yet even at that opportunity, David chose mercy and grace. David trusted in God more than he feared Saul, more than he feared Goliath, more than he feared the wild beasts who attempted to steal away that which he had a responsibility to guarder. Saul's wicked heart overcame him entirely, and he took his own life. David regained the love of his people, his status as a leader, and his good name. He became king--a king who would falter grievously on multiple occasions, but a king who knew the living God and would return helpless in repentance to His mercy seat.

In his lifetime, David faced the heart of mankind's greatest follies yet was known as a "man after God's own heart." Songs of praise welled up from within him, and now they lead us to the same mercy seat of the living God. Inherently, the give and take created in music that speaks directly to our souls is born from the angst and relief of genuine praise. The book of Psalms is a beautiful piece of poetry with impeccable imagery and brilliant juxtapositions--contrasting fear and mercy, hate and love, pride and humility, sin and righteousness, mankind and God. Each psalm praises God, either in thanking God for His provision or in trusting God with pleas for His provision. For these reasons and many more, the psalms are ideal subject matter for any artist.

With this context for the psalms, we can return to the outline of the psalms in Occidental culture depicted in The Gift of Music. For the purpose of achieving some historical plane of reference, I'll utilize the direction of the psalms painted in the introduction alongside a general timeline up through the Renaissance. However, a timeline depicting the Psalms throughout the ages can carry straight on through to the 20th century, so we will be returning to this discussion.

Ancient History  4500 to 1100 B.C.                                 Biblical Psalms

Classic 1100 B.C. to A.D. 500                              History of Western Music begins
Christ is crucified c. A.D. 33                              with clear notation c. A.D. 200

                                                                                The 8 Modes of music are in 

                                                                              development during this time.

Medieval 500 to A.D. 1400                                          Ambrosian and Gregorian Chants
                                                                                    Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic                       


1. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (339-397)



  • Gloria IV (Ambrosian, Cantus ad libitum) 
  • Emphasized biblical Christianity
  • Introduced antiphonal psalmody and hymns to Western music/ Ambrosian chant still sung today in Milan
  •  Augustine (354-430) followed Ambrose
  • Story goes that as Ambrose baptized Augustine, the two improvised Te Deum Laudamus (We Praise Thee, O God) in alternate verse. It was a practice of the Early Church to create hymns when inspired. Te Deum is believed to be written about that time (late 4th c.), one of the few texts composed then.


2. Pope Gregory I (reigned 590-604) 

  • Gregorian Chant: Monastic Choir of the Abbey of St. Pierre de Solesmes, 1930 
  •  Brought many musical reforms into the church
  • Responsible for arranging systematic modes
  • Gregorian chants were named for him
  • Only men sang in chant services
  • Gregorian chants have an impersonal, mystical quality--a powerful expression of Romanesque Art
  • Three-fourths of Gregorian chants are made up of entire psalms or selected verses
  • Gregorian chants are the source and inspiration of a large portion of all sacred Western music up to the 16th c.



Renaissance 1450 to 1600                                           Luther Chorales, Genevan Psalter
                                                                                   Reformation
                                                                                   Counter-Reformation


 3. Martin Luther (1483-1546)


  • A Mighty Fortress is Our God (audio with visual interpretation of creation)   Please keep in mind that his original sounded much different than the sample provided here.
  • Included music as a vital part of worship in the form of congregational chorale singing (all voices included)
  • A time of musical Renaissance in German-speaking lands
  • Chorale was a representation of Scripture
  • Luther was an accomplished amateur and wrote chorales that spread Reformation throughout Europe.
  • His most well-known work is "A Mighty Fortress is Our God" 
  • He called the Psalter "a Bible in miniature"
  • At discouraging news, was known to say, "Come, let's sing the 46th psalm"
  • He once said, "He who despises music, as do all the fanatics, does not please me. Music is a gift of God, not a gift of men [...] After theology I accord to music the highest place and greatest honor."
  •  
 4. John Calvin (1509-1564)


  • Genevan Psalter, Psalm 80 (excerpt) 
  • Prohibited singing of texts that were not scriptural (or found in the Bible) 
  • Various translations of Psalms set to music
  • No elaborate music
  • Genevan Psalter in a compilation of simple 4-part settings that are excellent for devotional music
  • In preface to Genevan Psalter of 1542, Calvin connects music with prayer (also quoted at the start): "As for public prayers, there are two kinds: the ones with words alone, the others with singing."
  •  
     
 5. Louis Bourgeois
 

  • Les Psaumes Huguenots, interpretation by guitartist Marcelo de la Puebla (no vocals)
  •  Includes the Doxology-- doxa is "to praise", ology refers to "the study of"
  • French Huguenots sang psalms in court and camp
  • "It has been said that the Protestant Reformation exorcized a greater influence upon the historical course of religious music specifically and European music generally than any other movement initiated in the Renaissance."